Historical Rivals of Virtue Ethics

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Practical wisdom

Various virtues are complementary to each other and work in an integral way. For example, a good intention of a person with the moral virtue of benevolence does not necessarily bear fruit, if he or she makes a misjudgment. According to Aristotle, therefore, one must have the intellectual virtue of "practical wisdom" (phronêsis) to make a proper judgment at the given situation, at the right moment with the proper method: "Again, the work of man is achieved only in accordance with practical wisdom as well as with moral virtue; for virtue makes us aim at the right mark, and practical wisdom makes us take the right means."[2] One cannot properly possess any of the virtues unless one has developed practical wisdom. Conversely, if one has practical wisdom, then one has all the virtues.

Historical rivals of virtue ethics

The Greek idea of the virtues was later incorporated into Christian moral theology. During the scholastic period, the most comprehensive consideration of the virtues from a theological perspective was provided by Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae and his Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics. The tradition however was eclipsed in the Renaissance, and throughout the early modern period, when the Aristotelian synthesis of ethics and metaphysics fell into disfavor. There appeared at least three historical rivals: classical republicanism, Kantianism, and utilitarianism.

Classical republicanism

Although the tradition receded into the background of European philosophical since the Renaissance, the term "virtue" remained current during this period, and in fact appeared prominently in the tradition of classical republicanism or classical liberalism. This tradition was prominent in the intellectual life of sixteenth century Italy, as well as seventeenth and eighteenth century Britain and America; indeed the term "virtue" appeared frequently in the works of Machiavelli, David Hume, the republicans of the English Civil War period, the eighteenth century English political party The Whigs, the prominent figures among the Scottish Enlightenment, and the American Founding Fathers.

Classical republicanism with its use of this common term "virtue," however, should not be conflated with virtue ethics, as the two philosophical traditions draw from different sources and often address different concerns. Where virtue ethics traces its roots to Aristotle, classical republicanism draws primarily on Tacitus (c. 56 - c. 117 C.E.). Virtue theory emphases Aristotle's belief in the polis as the acme of political organization, and the role of the virtues in enabling human beings to flourish in that environment. Classical republicanism in contrast emphasizes Tacitus' concern that power and luxury can corrupt individuals