Psychology Study Guide

• Assessment instruments
• -Biomedical assessment: Techniques that assess physiological functioning
• e.g. computerized tomography      CT
•      magnetic resonance imaging   MRI
•      Positron-emission tomography PET
•      electroencephalogram         EEG
• Etiological Theories & treatment
•  What causes psychopathology & what are different treatment?
• Biopsychosocial Model: Psychopathology develops from an interaction of biological, psychological and social factors
• Diathesis-stress Model: Predisposition/vulnerability (Diathesis)+stress (e.g. stress alcohol, drugs, etc.)psychopathology
• Biological Approaches
• Brain dysfunction: Can result from:
• -injury, stroke or disease
• Neurotransmitters/Neurons:
• Psychopathology associated with:
• -Reuptake
• -Degradation
• -# & functioning of receptors on dendrites
• -Amt of particular neurotransmitter manufactured
• Genetic Factors
• -alterations in # or structure of genes (alleles)
• -Polygenic/multi-gene process: alterations in a # of genes leads to disorder.
• Biological approaches to Tx:
• -Treatments:
•   -Psychotropic medication
•   -Brain stimulation Techniques
•     -electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
•     -Deep brain Stimulation
•   -Psychosurgery
•   -Exercise
•   -Light Therapy
•    -Relaxation/ Meditation/Yoga
• Behavioral approaches
•   -behavior is learned
•   - Therefore, abnormal behavior is also learned
•   -Three principles of learning:
•      -classical conditioning
•        -unconditioned associations
•        -Neutral stimulus + UCS➡ UCR
•        -Neutral stimulus becomes CS➡ CR
•        -Helps explain development of phobias and other anxiety disorders
•     Application to treatment:
• - systematic Desensitization (Class cond)
•     -Teach relaxation and/or imagery
•     -Create anxiety hierarchy
•     -Expose person to steps of anxiety hierarchy (least to most anxiety-provoking) while having him/her relax or use imagery
•      -operant conditioning
•        -Behaviors are controlled by their consequences
•      -behaviors that are reinforced tend to increase in frequency
•      -behaviors that are not reinforced will eventually decrease in frequency (extinction)
•      -behaviors that are punished tend to decrease in frequency
•  
• --Reinforcement (to increase a behavior)
•     -positive reinforcement: reward or sth positive that follows a given behavior
•     -Negative reinforcement: removal of aversive stimulus that follows a given behavior
•             －escape conditioning: person in an aversive situation and is rewarded for leaving (escaping) by experiencing relief.
•             - avoidance conditioning: person is rewarded for avoiding an aversive situation by experiencing relief.
•   - punishment (to decrease behavior)
•       -application of an aversive stimulus or removal of a pleasurable stimulus that follows a given behavior
•       -problematic if used without positive reinforcement.
•            -can lead to suppression
•            -physical punishment associated with increased aggression
•            -Doesn’t tell people what to do.
• Application to treatment
•  -behavior modification (Operant conditioning)
•         Measure frequency of undesired and desired behaviors

        Identify effective reinforcers & consequences

        Positively reinforce positive behaviors (or opp of negative behaviors)!

•         Ignore annoying /minor undesired behaviors
•                Beware of extinction burst
•         Use natural consequences for negative bahaviors
•         Firm. Fair, consistent!
•   -Token Economy: Clearly identify desired & undesired behaviors
•        -Give tokens (chips, stars, points) for engaging in positive behaviors
•        -Tokens can be traded in for tangible rewards at end of week
•        -Highly…
• -Observational Learning
•  -people learn vicariously by watching other people (Models) engage in behaviors and experience reinforcement or punishment
•  - The more similar the model, the more powerful the learning experience
• Application to treatment
• -Observational learning
•  -Use of model can be very effective
•  -used in group therapy
•  -Role playing in group or individual therapy
•  －Encourage clients to observe successful people in theirs lives and use them as role models.

• Mood disorders
• -Includes major depression, persistent depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymia.
• - Involve several types of symptoms; affective, cognitive, physical/vegetative, and motivational.
• Major depressive episode
• -Five or more of the following during a 2-week period:
•          -Depressed mood most of the day, every day  -or-  
•          -Anhedonia: diminished interest or pleasure in all activities.快感缺乏，对什么东西都不感兴趣
•          -Significant change in appetite and/ or weight
•          -Sleep disturbance (hypersomnia or insomnia)
•          -Psychomotor agitation or retardation 精神运动性激动和迟延
•          -Fatigue/loss of energy   疲劳
•          -Feeling of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
•          -Decreased concentration or increased indecisiveness 犹豫不决的
•          -Recurrent thought of death   周期性的想死

• Major Depression
•   - Subtypes: melancholic features忧郁的, psychotic features, catatonic features 紧张性精神病患者, atypical features 表现非典型的, postpartum onset 产后抑郁症, seasonal pattern.
•   -Lifetime prevalence : 16% (varies internationally); Women > Men; Prevalence decreases from 30-85 yrs.
•   -Course: Episodic; likely recurrent
•   伴随疾病-Comorbidity: >70%; most frequent: substance abuse , anxiety disorder. Eating disorder.
• Etiological病原学的 theories of Depression (BIO)
• -Hypothalanmic- Pituitary- Adrenal (HPA) Axis （下丘脑; 肾上腺轴; 肾上腺轴系统） : Fight or flight response
•  －Depression: Hi cortisol & CRH
•  - Early or chronic stress impacts HPA Axis, which may impact monoamine systems.
• Etiological Theories (psych):
• - Bahavioral: Decreased positive reinforcers from stress or withdrawal creates self-perpetuating cycle
• - Cognitive: Negative views of self, world & future (AKA : negative triad), Perpetuated by distorted thinking

• Persistent Depressive Disorder
• -Depressed mood most of the day, every day, for at least 2 years
• -While depressed, at least 2 of the following:
•    -Appetite disturbance  食欲不好
•    -Sleep disturbance
•    -Low energy/ Fatigue
•    -Low self-esteem
•    -Poor concentration/indecisiveness
•    -Feelings of hopelessness

Persistent Depressive D/O

-Lifetime prevalence: 6%; Women> Men

-Course: Chronic, fluctuating

-Comorbidity: >70%; most frequent: substance abuse, anxiety disorder, eating disorder.

Etiological Theories (Bio)

-Genetic factors:

  -Multiple genetic abnormalities strongly implicated

  -Serotonin transporter gene abnormalities

-Neurotransmitter Theories:

  -Monoamines: norepinephrine, serotonin & dopamine