Phobias and Addictions

Classical conditioning does not occur every time a bell rings, in fact there are several factors in which, influence the extent to which classical conditioning occurs. These factors include: "the inter stimulus interval, the individual's learning history, and the organism's preparedness to learn" (Kowalski, and Westen, 2009, pg 163). Kowlski and Westen, 2009, pg 167, defines operant conditioning as "learning that results when an organism associates a response that occurs spontaneously with a particular environmental effect. "Operant conditioning is influenced by characteristics of the individual, and by the characteristics of the individual" (Kowalski and Westen, 2009, pg 177). The primary difference between classical and operant learning, are in that within classical learning "an environmental stimulus initiates a response, whereas in operant conditioning a behavior produces an environmental response."(Kowalski, and Westen, 2009, pg 167)

Studies have suggested that classical conditioning is an explanation for some human phobias. A phobia is an irrational fear of a specific object, (Kowalski, and Westen, 2009, pg 161). Phobia in a general context can be defined as a condition characterized by intense fear accompanied by avoidance (Scemes, Wielenska, Savoia, & Bernik, 2009, pg 258). The example used by Kowalski and Westen, 2009, is a phobia of hypodermic needles. Children whom are exposed to injections may develop severe emotional reactions, to hypodermic needles. Often individuals, as knowing adults, understand that injections are necessary, and relatively painless, usually this knowledge has little to no impact on the fear of the needle itself, as the fear is "elicited automatically" (Kowalski, and Westen, 2009, pg 161). Many phobia type fears are "acquired and elicited through the activation of sub cortical neural pathways between the visual system and the amygdale.' ‘Adult knowledge may be of little use in counteracting them because the crucial neural circuits are outside cortical control and are activated before the cortex even gets the message."(Kowalski, and Westen, 2009, pg 161). "Phobic behavior patterns are learned by classical and operant conditioning mechanisms (Scemes, Wielenska, Savoia, & Bernik, 2009, pg 258). One factor of significant importance is that positive emotions can be classically conditioned just as easily as the negative emotions can.

Responses to phobias are elicited by the "phobic stimuli" and often individuals learn to emit avoidance or escape type behaviors in an attempt to reduce the hypothetical risk. The escape and avoidance behaviors are characterized by "quantitative and qualitative restrictions, thus leading to social dysfunction as patients prefer to avoid situations" in which they are expected to participate, or allow (Scemes, Wielenska, Savoia, & Bernik, 2009, pg 258). In the case of