Edward IV (1442-1483)

Edward IV (1442-1483)

Reign: 1461-1483

• 18 years old when usurped the throne
• Handsome, unusually tall, lean and athletic
• Good-natured + approachable
• Appetite for food + women
• Lived luxurious lifestyle and liked hunting
• Wore crown whenever he was in public
• Dressed in fine, lavish costumes
• Dynamic + relentless in war; victorious in first command @ Mortimer’s Cross + Towton
• Died solvent in 1483 whereas Henry VI left debt of £372000; meant that Edward IV wasn’t reliant on parliament + had full control over finances

How was Yorkist Power consolidated following the battle of Towton?  

• Edward VI’s position – tenuous: many families in the north remained staunchly loyal to Lancastrian cause. 
• Lancastrian cause – two figureheads: King Henry VI in the north and Prince Edward of Wales in Scotland. 
• Edward gave Warwick full military responsibility, Warwick successful in taking rebel fortresses in north of England.
• After Towton, Edward was remarkably lenient in 1460s with leaders of Pro-Lancastrian Families, e.g. Henry Beaufort, duke of Somerset + Sir Ralph Percy – they were forgiven and lands + castles returned to them.  
• Being lenient didn’t help, 1462: Percy back in league with rebels – killed on battlefield of Hedgeley Moor 1464.
• Duke of Somerset (despite being shown real friendship by Edward – occasionally sharing his bed) led resistance of 1464: ended in defeat @ Hexham in May.
• November 1462, Margaret of Anjou invaded north from Scotland with small army donated by grand seneschal of Normandy – her reliance on French made her cause unpopular in England.
• Margaret promised Louis XI of France Calais in return for his help (deal with Louis made her more unpopular in England) – she was not able to withstand massive army Edward launched @ her: she fled by sea narrowly escaping capture.
• October 1463 Edward secured truce with Louis XI where it was agreed that France would stop funding Lancastrian cause. 
• Warwick began to look for a suitable French bride for Edward to strengthen the new alliance between the English and French.
• December – similar truce made with Scottish govt. This meant that Henry VI had to leave Edinburgh + seek refuge of Bamburgh. 
• Spring 1464 > duke of Somerset tried to inspire rebellion in Wales, Cheshire and Lancashire – Lancastrians were defeated @ skirmish of Hedgeley Moor + @battle of Hexham by Warwick’s bro: John Neville.  
• Henry escaped, Somerset was killed (Lancastrian cause as a whole = shattered), Henry spent over a year in Yorkshire, Lancashire and lake district on the run with only chamberlain: Sir Richard Tunstall.
• Henry VI was captured in July 1465, brought to London – lashed to horse wearing a straw hat > on his way to the tower, he was abused and people threw rubbish @ him as he passed.
• Edward IVs position now secure as long as Yorkist sympathisers stayed loyal.

Why did Warwick turn against Edward IV?

• Warwick was labelled ‘kingmaker’ for his part in championing + fighting for the Yorkist cause. 
• Rewarded for his support with territories + titles, e.g. Captain of Calais, Admiral of England and Constable of Dover castle – Warwick not given complete monopoly of power; royal patronage extended to other pro-Yorkists:  Lord Hastings> given Warwick’s stewardship of the duchy of Lancaster, Sir William Herbert> elevated to lieutenancy of South Wales in place of Warwick. 
• Edward secretly married Elizabeth Woodville while Warwick was close to arranging a political marriage alliance with the French royal family. 
• Edward’s marriage was a romantic affair.
• Elizabeth refused to let king sleep with her unless wed> this marriage was completely irresponsible when kings hand could have been used to great national advantage. 
• Edward IV, first English monarch to marry a commoner since the Norman Conquest.
• This marriage went against royal marital conventions as she couldn’t give him her virginity.  
• She had two sons by a previous marriage to Sir John Grey> died @ 2nd battle of Albans, fighting with Lancastrians. 
• 14th September 1464, Edward confessed he was already married (this was unwise as an alliance with the French would have been beneficial), assembled magnates were horrified.
• Woodville family were elevated to upper levels of English aristocracy. 
• Elizabeth Woodville’s siblings quickly married and linked their family to greatest houses in the kingdom> her bro, John, @ the age of 20 as married of to a rich heiress who was almost 80.
• Woodville clan acquired some of the highest positions in the land; e.g. bishop of Salisbury, admiral of the fleet.  
• 1466, her father Earl Rivers became treasurer of England in place of Lord Mountjoy (Warwick’s uncle), marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was unwise as the previously unknown family were elevated to nobility’s elite.
• Woodville’s rose = Warwick’s influence over king declined> though his family remained powerful, bro; George Neville became archbishop of York in September 1465.
• Edward IV failed to act on Warwick’s advice: Warwick loses influence over king which worsens divide in foreign policy> if he had acted on Warwick’s advice, they would have gained a more secure kingdom – made Warwick feel left-out +under-valued + ignored.
• Edward and Warwick were divided on foreign policy, Edward moved towards alliance w/ Burgundy whilst Warwick wanted alliance w/ France.
• As early as 1467, Louis XI was contemplating bringing together Margaret of Anjou and Warwick to defeat Edward.
• Warwick began to engineer the marriage of his daughter, Isabel, to the kings bro; duke of Clarence> Edward was furious & knew Warwick wanted to make himself more powerful + challenge the Woodville’s. 
• June 1467, Edward heard that George Neville (archbishop of York) was seeking dispensation from the pope to marry Isabel to Clarence. Edward dismissed him from office as Lord Chancellor> Woodville’s approved of this.
• Edward pursued alliance w/ Burgundy by marriage of his sister, Margaret of York, to duke of Burgundy’s eldest son in 1468> applauded by London’s merchants; this meant preparation for war w/ France – also beginning of Warwick’s personal alliance w/ France. 
• Marriage of Edward’s sister to Burgundian was main reason for conflict bet. Warwick and Edward.
• Spring 1469, Warwick in league w/ Clarence to undermine Woodville’s> Warwick in it to control king, Clarence to take kings place on throne.
• Clarence convinced Warwick to turn against king + helped spread rumour that Edward was son of archer called Blaybourne (making him a bastard).
• July 1469 @ Calais, Clarence defied his bro by marrying Warwick’s daughter Isabel> Edward commanded Warwick (@wedding party in Calais) to return to England and lend support – he refused.
• 12th July, Warwick issued manifesto declaring intent to relieve England from tyranny of poor govt., high taxes and lawlessness by petitioning the king to dispense w/ his corrupt + inept councillors> if he failed to do so, then he would deserve deposition , like unreliable kings before him.
• Warwick invited supporters to meet him @Canterbury in 3 days> arrived @ Canterbury on 16th July, joined northern army, fought royalist army led by earl of Pembroke> Pembroke defeated & without reason beheaded for treason on Warwick’s orders. 
• Edward received news of Pembroke’s defeat and knew he was @ Warwick’s mercy (main army defeated)> allowed supporters to dispense +remained in wait for Warwick.
• Edward held in custody, Warwick + Clarence attempted to rule in his name> Woodville’s suffered retribution of Neville’s: Earl Rivers + Sir John Woodville were beheaded on 12th August.  
• Anarchy in parts of England + Lancastrian rising in north forced Warwick to release king mid September> without king, Warwick unable to gain support from lords or command loyalty of Yorkist soldiers.
• Warwick gave Edward back his liberty in return for support of northern magnates who suppressed Lancastrian rebellion.
• Edward reinstated, returned to London> publically reconciled w/ Warwick and Clarence: neither was punished and those who fought for them were pardoned = shows foolishness in forgiving them, he was too lenient. 
• 1470 spring, rebellion in Lincolnshire engineered by Clarence gave Warwick opportunity to achieve objective> quickly defeated by Edward @ battle of Empingham (lose-cote field) before Warwick could provide reinforcements.
• Traitors fled to France under protection of Louis XI.

Why did Edward IV lose the throne in 1470 and how did he recover it in 1471?

The restoration of Henry VI

• Warwick had a change of heart in seeking the forgiveness of Margaret of Anjou + promising to support Lancastrian cause to redeem his position in England→ Warwick had full support of the French king> he promised to aid their cause w/ money, ships and soldiers. In return Louis would receive English support in campaign against Burgundy. 
• Warwick and Margaret alliance sealed w/ marriage of Prince Edward’s marriage to Warwick’s daughter Anne Neville.
• Margaret knew Henry VI could never rule alone therefore accepted that Warwick would be regent + governor of England. 
• Clarence promised crown in case of Edward dying without issue.
• Other members of Neville family rose in north → distraction for Edward from possible invasion in south> Warwick + Clarence returned in force→ landed @ Devon (Lancastrian stronghold) September 1470, king Edward away in Yorkshire concerned w/ northern rebels.
• Warwick gathered supports of Lancastrians while Edwards’s followers began to desert him, e.g. Marquess of Montague→ urged his troops to join Warwick. 
• Edward fled east w/ small entourage; boarded ship @ King’s Lynn on 2nd October and sailed for Holland + the protection of Burgundy. 
• 3rd October, 1470, Henry VI released from captivity in Tower and formally reinstated to English throne.
• Warwick , who had played an important part in his overthrow now made him king once again + carried his train @ St. Pauls cathedral in formal thanksgiving ceremony →Warwick’s ability to put Henry VI back on throne showed Edward was weak.

The return of Edward IV

• The reinstating of Henry VI triggered war w/ Burgundy because of Warwick’s deal w/ Louis XI. 
• Merchant community→ horrified – loss of wool trade’s chief market loomed.
• Duke of Burgundy leant towards alliance w/ fugitive king Edward. 
• Duke Charles donated 50 000 crowns to Edward IV therefore started planning his own restoration→ attitude and involvement of foreign powers would determine English history.
• England entered war without consent of parliament and against wishes of London’s merchants→ Warwick no longer relied on widespread public support.
• Edward landed @ Ravespur, Yorkshire on 14th March 1471.
• Both Edward and Warwick tried to assemble troops to defeat each other but neither party was successful initially.
• Hull barred its gates to Edward + a no. of magnates ignored Warwick’s plea for help.
• Edward headed south w/ a couple of 1000 men to face Warwick’s much larger army.
• By the time he confronted Warwick, his army was @ least 5000 strong.
• @ Banbury, 3rd April, Clarence w/ a host of 12000 men joined forced w/ Edward who forgave him & promised the full restoration of his estates (too lenient again). 
•  They marched to London together while Warwick’s bro + archbishop of York, George Neville, prepared to defend London.
• Neville did not gain support even after parading Henry VI through the streets, therefore he switched sides & sent messages to Edward declaring his readiness to open the gates of London. 
• 11th April, Edward and Clarence entered the city greeted by cheering crowds & formal greetings from London mayor→ Edward confined Henry VI to the tower and he was reunited w/ his wife & their two daughters.
• It was here that Edward also met his 5 month old son> hope and future of Yorkist dynasty. 
• Edward decided to ride out of London and meet Warwick.
• They met @ Barnet, 16km out of London & fought on Easter Sunday, 14th April→ Warwick had around twice the no. of men that Edward had (around 10000).
• Warwick’s ranks were confused and the archers mistook some of their own for the enemy and fired on them. This gave Edward a hard-earned victory.
• Warwick killed as he tried to escape from the battlefield→ body brought to London & displayed in St. Paul’s cathedral for 3 days, to avoid rumours that he survived.
• Margaret of Anjou + her son Prince Edward had sailed into Weymouth to raise an army in the south against Edward.
• Plan: Jasper Tudor would ride ahead and raise an army in Wales and she would follow.
• 23rd April, after hearing of Margaret’s landing, Edward left London to defeat her before she could reach Jasper Tudor.
• Margaret chose not to wait for Edward’s army and continued to go further to Bristol on May Day→ she continued north and rested @ Berkeley castle, south of Gloucester; Edward camped some miles behind @Chipping Sodbury.
• Lancastrian army continued to Tewkesbury but here Edward finally caught up w/ Margaret and the prince.
• Battle of Tewkesbury fought on 3rd May 1471; Edward victorious, his army was better equipped + more experienced although Margaret’s was larger. 
• Prince Edward and many other Lancastrian magnates were killed & a few days later, Margaret was captured. 
• Towards midnight on the same day as Edward returned to London, 50 yr old Henry VI was put to death in the Tower presumably on Edwards orders. 
• Margaret was spared & permitted to return to France where she dies in poverty 1482. 
• Jasper Tudor fled to France. 

What was the nature of war during the wars of the roses and how did it affect the participants?

• The outcome of the fighting was more likely to be determined by un-armoured foot soldiers rather than mounted knights; artillery played a crucial role.
• The traditional longbow retained its importance as the preferred projectile weapon of English commanders.
• Infantry were armed w/ billhooks and bows.
• The longbow forced cavalry men to dismount and fight on foot to preserve their horses→ they wore heavy fluted armour for their own protection> deflects arrows and blades – this armour was more vulnerable to bludgering, and maces and flails (spiked iron balls on chains) were widely used.
• A popular weapon amongst noble men, e.g. duke of Gloucester (RIII) was the poleaxe: axe mounted on a metal-studded, 5 ft long pole, designed to crush and rip open armour.
• After the initial exchange of arrows and cannonfire> there was hand-to-hand fighting which required skill, weapons and armour.
• Lords and kings (w/ the exception of Henry VI) fought in the thickest of the fighting→12 noblemen were killed in the fighting bet. 1459 and 1461 and 10 bet. 1469 & 1471.
• Such ‘leadership from the front’ virtually eliminated the chance of tactical warfare once the enemy was engages @ close quarters> survival of the leaders would determine whether or not the followers should fight on.
• To defend against an attacker armies used caltraps (no. of small metal spikes forged together each pointing in a different direction) and pavises (wooden screen protecting an archer, windows cut into it so he could shoot).
• In most cases the soldiers were local men fighting as an obligation to their lords.

*1478> George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, is put to death in the tower of London.

The second reign of Edward IV

• 2nd decade of Edwards reign was dull.
• No further crises after 1471 to compare w/ Warwick’s rebellion
• Edward was no longer too lenient/trusting towards wrong people therefore govt. was more successful as he had loyalty to himself rather than the crown. 

To what extent was Edward IV’s foreign policy a failure?